System can convert MRI scans into 3D-printed, physical models in a few hours.
Scientia — Researchers at MIT and Boston Children’s Hospital have developed a system that can take MRI scans of a patient’s heart and, in a matter of hours, convert them into a tangible, physical model that surgeons can use to plan surgery.
New system from MIT and Boston Children’s Hospital researchers converts MRI scans into 3D-printed heart models (shown here). Photo: Bryce Vickmark
The models could provide a more intuitive way for surgeons to assess and prepare for the anatomical idiosyncrasies of individual patients. “Our collaborators are convinced that this will make a difference,” says Polina Golland, a professor of electrical engineering and computer science at MIT, who led the project. “The phrase I heard is that ‘surgeons see with their hands,’ that the perception is in the touch.”
This fall, seven cardiac surgeons at Boston Children’s Hospital will participate in a study intended to evaluate the models’ usefulness.
Golland and her colleagues will describe their new system at the International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer Assisted Intervention in October. Danielle Pace, an MIT graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science, is first author on the paper and spearheaded the development of the software that analyzes the MRI scans. Mehdi Moghari, a physicist at Boston Children’s Hospital, developed new procedures that increase the precision of MRI scans tenfold, and Andrew Powell, a cardiologist at the hospital, leads the project’s clinical work.
The work was funded by both Boston Children’s Hospital and by Harvard Catalyst, a consortium aimed at rapidly moving scientific innovation into the clinic.
MRI data consist of a series of cross sections of a three-dimensional object. Like a black-and-white photograph, each cross section has regions of dark and light, and the boundaries between those regions may indicate the edges of anatomical structures. Then again, they may not.
Determining the boundaries between distinct objects in an image is one of the central problems in computer vision, known as “image segmentation.” But general-purpose image-segmentation algorithms aren’t reliable enough to produce the very precise models that surgical planning requires.
New system from MIT and Boston Children’s Hospital researchers converts MRI scans into 3D-printed heart models (shown here). Photo: Bryce Vickmark
Human factors
Typically, the way to make an image-segmentation algorithm more precise is to augment it with a generic model of the object to be segmented. Human hearts, for instance, have chambers and blood vessels that are usually in roughly the same places relative to each other. That anatomical consistency could give a segmentation algorithm a way to weed out improbable conclusions about object boundaries.
The problem with that approach is that many of the cardiac patients at Boston Children’s Hospital require surgery precisely because the anatomy of their hearts is irregular. Inferences from a generic model could obscure the very features that matter most to the surgeon.
In the past, researchers have produced printable models of the heart by manually indicating boundaries in MRI scans. But with the 200 or so cross sections in one of Moghari’s high-precision scans, that process can take eight to 10 hours.
“They want to bring the kids in for scanning and spend probably a day or two doing planning of how exactly they’re going to operate,” Golland says. “If it takes another day just to process the images, it becomes unwieldy.”
Pace and Golland’s solution was to ask a human expert to identify boundaries in a few of the cross sections and allow algorithms to take over from there. Their strongest results came when they asked the expert to segment only a small patch —one-ninth of the total area — of each cross section.
New system from MIT and Boston Children’s Hospital researchers converts MRI scans into 3D-printed heart models (shown here). Photo: Bryce Vickmark
In that case, segmenting just 14 patches and letting the algorithm infer the rest yielded 90 percent agreement with expert segmentation of the entire collection of 200 cross sections. Human segmentation of just three patches yielded 80 percent agreement.
“I think that if somebody told me that I could segment the whole heart from eight slices out of 200, I would not have believed them,” Golland says. “It was a surprise to us.”
Together, human segmentation of sample patches and the algorithmic generation of a digital, 3-D heart model takes about an hour. The 3-D-printing process takes a couple of hours more.
Prognosis
Currently, the algorithm examines patches of unsegmented cross sections and looks for similar features in the nearest segmented cross sections. But Golland believes that its performance might be improved if it also examined patches that ran obliquely across several cross sections. This and other variations on the algorithm are the subject of ongoing research.
The clinical study in the fall will involve MRIs from 10 patients who have already received treatment at Boston Children’s Hospital. Each of seven surgeons will be given data on all 10 patients — some, probably, more than once. That data will include the raw MRI scans and, on a randomized basis, either a physical model or a computerized 3-D model, based, again at random, on either human segmentations or algorithmic segmentations.
Using that data, the surgeons will draw up surgical plans, which will be compared with documentation of the interventions that were performed on each of the patients. The hope is that the study will shed light on whether 3-D-printed physical models can actually improve surgical outcomes.
“Absolutely, a 3-D model would indeed help,” says Sitaram Emani, a cardiac surgeon at Boston Children’s Hospital who is not a co-author on the new paper. “We have used this type of model in a few patients, and in fact performed ‘virtual surgery’ on the heart to simulate real conditions. Doing this really helped with the real surgery in terms of reducing the amount of time spent examining the heart and performing the repair.”
“I think having this will also reduce the incidence of residual lesions — imperfections in repair — by allowing us to simulate and plan the size and shape of patches to be used,” Emani adds. “Ultimately, 3D-printed patches based upon the model will allow us to tailor prosthesis to patient.”
“Finally, having this immensely simplifies discussions with families, who find the anatomy confusing,” Emani says. “This gives them a better visual, and many patients and families have commented on how this empowers them to understand their condition better.”
New study finds massive Volcanic eruptions in the Siberian Traps, likely triggered mass extinction.
Scientia — Around 252 million years ago, life on Earth collapsed in spectacular and unprecedented fashion, as more than 96 percent of marine species and 70 percent of land species disappeared in a geological instant. The so-called end-Permian mass extinction — or more commonly, the “Great Dying” — remains the most severe extinction event in Earth’s history.
Scientists suspect that massive volcanic activity, in a large igneous province called the Siberian Traps, may have had a role in the global die-off, raising air and sea temperatures and releasing toxic amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over a very short period of time. However, it’s unclear whether magmatism was the main culprit, or simply an accessory to the mass extinction.
MIT researchers have now pinned down the timing of the magmatism, and determined that the Siberian Traps erupted at the right time, and for the right duration, to have been a likely trigger for the end-Permian extinction.
According to the group’s timeline, explosive eruptions began around 300,000 years before the start of the end-Permian extinction. Enormous amounts of lava both erupted over land and flowed beneath the surface, creating immense sheets of igneous rock in the shallow crust. The total volume of eruptions and intrusions was enough to cover a region the size of the United States in kilometer-deep magma. About two-thirds of this magma likely erupted prior to and during the period of mass extinction; the last third erupted in the 500,000 years following the end of the extinction event. This new timeline, the researchers say, establishes the Siberian Traps as the main suspect in killing off a majority of the planet’s species.
“We now can say it’s plausible,” says Seth Burgess, who received his PhD last year from MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences and is now a postdoc at the U.S. Geological Survey. “The connection is unavoidable, because it’s clear these two things were happening at the same time.”
Burgess and Sam Bowring, the Robert R. Shrock Professor of Earth and Planetary Science at MIT, have published their results in the journal Science Advances.
Learn how MIT researchers determined that volcanic eruptions from Siberian Traps are likely triggers for the end-Permian mass extinction. Video: Melanie Gonick/MIT
A singular event
Around the time of the end-Permian extinction, scientists have found that the Earth was likely experiencing a sudden and massive disruption to the carbon cycle, abnormally high air and sea temperatures, and an increasingly acidic ocean — all signs of a huge and rapid addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Whatever triggered the mass extinction, scientists reasoned, must have been powerful enough to generate enormous amounts of greenhouse gases in a short period of time.
The Siberian Traps have long been a likely contender: The large igneous province bears the remains of the largest continental volcanic event in Earth’s history.
“It’s literally a singular event in Earth history — it’s a monster,” Burgess says. “It makes Yellowstone … look like the head of a pin.”
It’s thought that as the region erupted, magma rose up through the Earth’s crust, essentially cooking sediments along the way and releasing enormous amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
“The question we tried to answer is, ‘Which came first, mass extinction or the Siberian Traps? What is their overall tempo, and does the timing permit magmatism to be a trigger for mass extinction?’” Burgess says.
Dates pinned
For the answer, Burgess, Bowring, and colleagues traveled to Siberia on multiple occasions, beginning in 2008, to sample rocks from the Siberian Traps. For each expedition, the team traveled by boat or plane to a small Siberian village, then boarded a helicopter to the Siberian Traps. From there, they paddled on inflatable boats down a wide river, chiseling out samples of volcanic rock along the way.
“We’d have a couple of hundred kilos of rocks, and would go to the market in Moscow and buy 15 sport duffle bags, and in each we’d put 10 kilos of rocks … and hope we could get them all on the plane and back to the lab,” Burgess recalls.
Back at MIT, Burgess and Bowring dated select samples using uranium/lead geochronology, in which Bowring’s lab specializes. The team looked for tiny crystals of either zircon or perovskite, each of which contain uranium and lead, the ratios of which they can measure to calculate the rock’s age. The team dated various layers of rock to determine the beginning and end of the eruptions.
They then compared the timing of the Siberian Traps to that of the end-Permian extinction, which they had previously determined using identical techniques.
“That’s important, because we can compare green apples to green apples. If everything is done the same, there’s no bias,” Burgess says. “Now we’re able to say magmatism definitely preceded mass extinction, and we can resolve those two things outside of uncertainty.”
Richard Ernst, a scientist-in-residence at Carleton University in Ottawa, Ontario, says the new timeline establishes a definitive, causal link between the Siberian Traps and the end-Permian extinction.
“This paper nails it,” says Ernst, who was not involved in the study. “Given that they have dated a portion of the Siberian Traps occurring just before, during, and only for a short time after the extinction, this is the ‘smoking gun’ for this large igneous province being fully correlated with the extinction. At this point, additional dating and other studies will simply provide more details on the link.”
Now that the team has resolved the beginning and end of the Siberian Traps eruptions, Burgess hopes others will take an even finer lens to the event, to determine the tempo of magmatism in the 300,000 years prior to the mass extinction.
“We don’t know if a little erupted for 250,000 years, and right before the extinction, boom, a vast amount did, or if it was more slow and steady, where the atmosphere reaches a tipping point, and across that point you have mass extinction, but before that you just have critically stressed biospheres,” Burgess says. “Now we’ve pinned it down in time, and others can go in with other techniques to get a more fully fleshed out timeline. But we need it to start someplace, and that’s what we’ve got.”
Scientia — In ongoing research to record the interaction of environment and evolution, a team led by University of California, Riverside biologist David Reznick has found new information illustrating the evolution of a population of guppies.
David Reznick is a distinguished professor of biology at UC Riverside. Credit: L. Duka.
Working in a river in Trinidad, the researchers determined which male guppies would contribute more offspring to the population as well as which would live longer and which would have a shorter lifespan.
“We’re detailing how evolution happens,” Reznick, a distinguished professor of biology, said. “Usually people look at evolution as change over time but they don’t know the details of how it changes.”
The new work is part of research that Reznick has been doing since 1978. It involved transplanting guppies from a river with a diverse community of predators into a river with no predators – except for one other fish species, an occasional predator – to record how the guppies would evolve and how they might impact their environment.
To do this, the team, which includes Reznick’s former graduate student Swanne P. Gordon and two undergraduates working in his lab, used scales from the guppies to archive their DNA. When they returned the guppies to the river and new unmarked guppies showed up, the latter were marked and samples of their scales were taken for study. In this way the team tracked the guppies’ differential success in making babies and surviving.
“We could look at their appearance and see how male color pattern affected their ability to make babies or to survive,” Reznick said. “We used the DNA from the scales to identify who their parents were. That means we could reconstruct their pedigree and eventually know over time their success for contributing offspring.”
The research also found that males with more or larger orange and black spots produce more offspring; males with black spots also have a higher risk of mortality.
The findings, which appeared online Aug. 19 in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B, show how real time evolution can be resolved into differences among fathers in siring sons, which could be attributed to how successful the father is in finding mates or how long he lives. It also shows how evolution can link these differences to heritable individual attributes.
“People think of evolution as historical. They don’t think of it as something that’s happening under our nose. It is a contemporary process. People are skeptical; they don’t believe in evolution because they can’t see it. Here, we see it. We can see if something makes you better able to make babies and live longer,” Reznick said.
“People look at the genetics of aging in mice and apply that to humans,” he added. “But those mice are in a lab. Results from studying animals in captivity may not be the same as you get when you look at an animal in nature.”
Results from the new work could also be used in biological conservation or anywhere researchers are looking at change overtime because these methods can reveal the attributes of individuals that enhance survival and reproduction. Another important goal of Reznick’s research program is detailing how the animals are evolving and influencing their environment.
“We call this the ‘interaction between ecology and evolution,"” he said. “Animals can change their environment around them and that change can adapt to how they evolve. The idea of ecology and evolution interacting is a different view. If you look at ecological evolution, it treats animals as a constant. But this research has recorded the guppies evolving and how they change their environment as they evolve. An interaction between ecology and evolution could yield entirely different results from what you would expect if you modeled the process without the interaction.”
Reznick emphasized that evolution is not a linear process.
“It’s a series of episodes,” he said. “What we set out to do is watch and get a real sense of how evolution happens. The path is unpredictable and it is happening now.”
– Credit and Resource –
More information: Selection analysis on the rapid evolution of a secondary sexual trait, Published 19 August 2015.DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.1244
Study finds barrage of small asteroids shattered moon’s upper crust.
Researchers analyzed the gravity signatures of more than 1,200 craters (in yellow) on the far side of the moon. Courtesy of the researchers
Scientia — Scientists believe that about 4 billion years ago, during a period called the Late Heavy Bombardment, the moon took a severe beating, as an army of asteroids pelted its surface, carving out craters and opening deep fissures in its crust. Such sustained impacts increased the moon’s porosity, opening up a network of large seams beneath the lunar surface.
Now scientists at MIT and elsewhere have identified regions on the far side of the moon, called the lunar highlands, that may have been so heavily bombarded — particularly by small asteroids — that the impacts completely shattered the upper crust, leaving these regions essentially as fractured and porous as they could be. The scientists found that further impacts to these highly porous regions may have then had the opposite effect, sealing up cracks and decreasing porosity.
The researchers observed this effect in the upper layer of the crust — a layer that scientists refer to as the megaregolith. This layer is dominated by relatively small craters, measuring 30 kilometers or less in diameter. In contrast, it appears that deeper layers of crust, that are affected by larger craters, are not quite as battered, and are less fractured and porous.
Jason Soderblom, a research scientist in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, says the evolution of the moon’s porosity can give scientists clues to some of the earliest life-supporting processes taking place in the solar system.
“The whole process of generating pore space within planetary crusts is critically important in understanding how water gets into the subsurface,” Soderblom says. “On Earth, we believe that life may have evolved somewhat in the subsurface, and this is a primary mechanism to create subsurface pockets and void spaces, and really drives a lot of the rates at which these processes happen. The moon is a really ideal place to study this.”
Soderblom and his colleagues, including Maria Zuber, the E.A. Griswold Professor of Geophysics and MIT’s vice president for research, have published their findings in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
Changing porosity
The team used data obtained by NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) — twin spacecraft that orbited the moon throughout 2012, each measuring the push and pull of the other as an indicator of the moon’s gravity.
With the GRAIL data, researchers mapped the gravity field in and around more than 1,200 craters on the far side of the moon. This region, the lunar highlands, makes up the moon’s most ancient, heavily cratered terrain.
They then carried out an analysis called a Bouger correction to subtract the gravitational effect of mountains, valleys, and other topology from the total gravity field. What’s left is the gravity field beneath the surface, within the moon’s crust.
“There’s an assumption we do have to make, which is that there’s no changes in the material itself, and that all of the bumps we’re seeing [in the gravity field] are from changes in the porosity and the amount of air between the rock,” Soderblom explains.
Soderblom calculated the gravity signatures in and around 1,200 craters on the far side of the moon, and compared the gravity within each crater with the gravity of the surrounding terrain, to determine whether an impact increased or decreased the local porosity.
Origin story
For craters smaller than 30 kilometers in diameter, he found impacts both increased and decreased porosity in the upper layer of the moon’s crust.
“For the smallest craters that we’re looking at, we think we’re starting to see where the moon has gone through so much fracturing that it gets to a point where the porosity of the crust just stays at some constant level,” Soderblom says. “You can keep impacting it and you’ll hit regions where you’ll increase porosity here and decrease it there, but on average it stays constant.”
The researchers found that larger craters, which excavated much deeper into the moon’s crust, only increased porosity in the underlying crust — an indication that these deeper layers have not reached a steady state in porosity, and are not as fractured as the megaregolith.
Soderblom says the gravity signatures of the larger craters in particular may provide insight into just how many impacts the moon, and other terrestrial bodies, sustained during the Late Heavy Bombardment.
“For the smaller craters, it’s like if you’re filling a bucket, eventually your bucket gets full, but if you keep pouring cups of water into the bucket, you can’t tell how many cups of water beyond full you’ve gone,” Soderblom says. “Looking at the larger craters at the subsurface might give us insight, because that ‘bucket’ isn’t full yet.”
Ultimately, tracing the moon’s changing porosity may help scientists track the trajectory of the moon’s impactors 4 billion years ago.
“What we really hope to do is to figure out the number of impacts in the range of 100 kilometers in diameter, and from that, we can extrapolate to the smaller craters, assuming different populations of impactors, and those different assumptions will tell us where the impactors came from,” Soderblom says. “This will help to understand the origin of the Late Heavy Bombardment, and whether it was disrupted material from the asteroid belt, or if it was further out.”
More efficient memory-management scheme could help enable chips with thousands of cores.
Scientia — In a modern, multicore chip, every core — or processor — has its own small memory cache, where it stores frequently used data. But the chip also has a larger, shared cache, which all the cores can access.
If one core tries to update data in the shared cache, other cores working on the same data need to know. So the shared cache keeps a directory of which cores have copies of which data.
That directory takes up a significant chunk of memory: In a 64-core chip, it might be 12 percent of the shared cache. And that percentage will only increase with the core count. Envisioned chips with 128, 256, or even 1,000 cores will need a more efficient way of maintaining cache coherence.
At the International Conference on Parallel Architectures and Compilation Techniques in October, MIT researchers unveil the first fundamentally new approach to cache coherence in more than three decades. Whereas with existing techniques, the directory’s memory allotment increases in direct proportion to the number of cores, with the new approach, it increases according to the logarithm of the number of cores.
In a 128-core chip, that means that the new technique would require only one-third as much memory as its predecessor. With Intel set to release a 72-core high-performance chip in the near future, that’s a more than hypothetical advantage. But with a 256-core chip, the space savings rises to 80 percent, and with a 1,000-core chip, 96 percent.
When multiple cores are simply reading data stored at the same location, there’s no problem. Conflicts arise only when one of the cores needs to update the shared data. With a directory system, the chip looks up which cores are working on that data and sends them messages invalidating their locally stored copies of it.
“Directories guarantee that when a write happens, no stale copies of the data exist,” says Xiangyao Yu, an MIT graduate student in electrical engineering and computer science and first author on the new paper. “After this write happens, no read to the previous version should happen. So this write is ordered after all the previous reads in physical-time order.”
Time travel
What Yu and his thesis advisor — Srini Devadas, the Edwin Sibley Webster Professor in MIT’s Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science — realized was that the physical-time order of distributed computations doesn’t really matter, so long as their logical-time order is preserved. That is, core A can keep working away on a piece of data that core B has since overwritten, provided that the rest of the system treats core A’s work as having preceded core B’s.
The ingenuity of Yu and Devadas’ approach is in finding a simple and efficient means of enforcing a global logical-time ordering. “What we do is we just assign time stamps to each operation, and we make sure that all the operations follow that time stamp order,” Yu says.
With Yu and Devadas’ system, each core has its own counter, and each data item in memory has an associated counter, too. When a program launches, all the counters are set to zero. When a core reads a piece of data, it takes out a “lease” on it, meaning that it increments the data item’s counter to, say, 10. As long as the core’s internal counter doesn’t exceed 10, its copy of the data is valid. (The particular numbers don’t matter much; what matters is their relative value.)
When a core needs to overwrite the data, however, it takes “ownership” of it. Other cores can continue working on their locally stored copies of the data, but if they want to extend their leases, they have to coordinate with the data item’s owner. The core that’s doing the writing increments its internal counter to a value that’s higher than the last value of the data item’s counter.
Say, for instance, that cores A through D have all read the same data, setting their internal counters to 1 and incrementing the data’s counter to 10. Core E needs to overwrite the data, so it takes ownership of it and sets its internal counter to 11. Its internal counter now designates it as operating at a later logical time than the other cores: They’re way back at 1, and it’s ahead at 11. The idea of leaping forward in time is what gives the system its name — Tardis, after the time-traveling spaceship of the British science fiction hero Dr. Who.
Now, if core A tries to take out a new lease on the data, it will find it owned by core E, to which it sends a message. Core E writes the data back to the shared cache, and core A reads it, incrementing its internal counter to 11 or higher.
Unexplored potential
In addition to saving space in memory, Tardis also eliminates the need to broadcast invalidation messages to all the cores that are sharing a data item. In massively multicore chips, Yu says, this could lead to performance improvements as well. “We didn’t see performance gains from that in these experiments,” Yu says. “But that may depend on the benchmarks” — the industry-standard programs on which Yu and Devadas tested Tardis. “They’re highly optimized, so maybe they already removed this bottleneck,” Yu says.
“There have been other people who have looked at this sort of lease idea,” says Christopher Hughes, a principal engineer at Intel Labs, “but at least to my knowledge, they tend to use physical time. You would give a lease to somebody and say, ‘OK, yes, you can use this data for, say, 100 cycles, and I guarantee that nobody else is going to touch it in that amount of time.’ But then you’re kind of capping your performance, because if somebody else immediately afterward wants to change the data, then they’ve got to wait 100 cycles before they can do so. Whereas here, no problem, you can just advance the clock. That is something that, to my knowledge, has never been done before. That’s the key idea that’s really neat.”
Hughes says, however, that chip designers are conservative by nature. “Almost all mass-produced commercial systems are based on directory-based protocols,” he says. “We don’t mess with them because it’s so easy to make a mistake when changing the implementation.”
But “part of the advantage of their scheme is that it is conceptually somewhat simpler than current [directory-based] schemes,” he adds. “Another thing that these guys have done is not only propose the idea, but they have a separate paper actually proving its correctness. That’s very important for folks in this field.”
Bioluminescence in lanternsharks appears to help with reproduction
Scientia — A small team of researchers with members from Belgium, Sweden and Germany has a found what they believe is a possible explanation for bioluminescence in lanternsharks. In their paper, Julien Claes, Dan-Eric Nilsson, Jérôme Mallefet and Nicolas Straube describe field experiments they conducted watching the sharks to learn if the luminescence was tied to their behavior, genetic testing they conducted and what they found in doing so.
Etmopterus spinax. Credit: sharks.org
Lanternsharks live in the ocean off the coast of Iceland and northern Europe all the way down to South Africa, generally in deep water—water so deep that there is no light. As the researchers report, most species of the small shark have developed bioluminescence, though until now, the reason for it has remained a mystery—it does not appear to offer a means of attracting prey or warding off predators and it would seem counterproductive towards hiding from predators.
To find out, the team studied the sharks in their natural environment and also in large holding tanks—on the lookout for any behaviors that might be related to their ability to light up. They noted that males and females have light producing organs known as photophores on different parts of their bodies, and that both have the organs very near their external sex organs.
After the careful study of the sharks, the team determined that the purpose of the bioluminescence was to help with finding a mate—with light coming from different body parts it becomes much easier for the sharks to differentiate between genders in the dark. They also noted that the sharks shimmy as they swim, twisting their bodies back and forth which causes the light they emit to appear to flick on and off, which the team believes is meant to confuse predators—in some cases it might be mistaken for light matching the surroundings causing the shark to appear invisible.
Genetic testing of the sharks showed much more species diversity than was thought—they found 36 in all and suspect the bioluminescence was partly responsible, because it allows for maintaining reproductive isolation. But it also contributes to a slow reproductive rate, which the team notes, has led to them being classified as “near threatened” in northern waters.
What is a Bioluminescence lanternshark?
A Bioluminescence Lanternshark also known as the velvet belly lanternshark (or simply velvet belly, Etmopterus spinax) is a species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae.
One of the most common deepwater sharks in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, the velvet belly is found from Iceland and Norway to Gabon and South Africa at a depth of 70–2,490 m (230–8,170 ft).
A small shark generally no more than 45 cm (18 in) long, the velvet belly is so named because its black underside is abruptly distinct from the brown coloration on the rest of its body. The body of this species is fairly stout, with a moderately long snout and tail, and very small gill slits. Like other lanternsharks, the velvet belly is bioluminescent, with light-emitting photophores forming a species-specific pattern over its flanks and abdomen. These photophores are thought to function in counter-illumination, which camouflages the shark against predators. They may also play a role in social interactions.
Young velvet bellies feed mainly on krill and small bony fish, transitioning to squid and shrimp as they grow larger. There is evidence that individuals also move into deeper water as they age. This species exhibits a number of adaptations to living in the deep sea, such as specialized T-cells and liver proteins for dealing with the higher concentrations of heavy metals found there. Velvet bellies often carry a heavy parasite load. It is ovoviviparous, giving birth to litters of six to 20 young every two to three years. This species has virtually no commercial value, but large numbers are caught as bycatch in deepwater commercial fisheries. Although it has been assessed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the heavy fishing pressure throughout its range and its slow reproductive rate are raising conservation concerns.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Chondrichthyes Subclass: Elasmobranchii Order: Squaliformes Family: Etmopteridae Genus: Etmopterus Species: E. spinax
Habitat of the lanternshark
The range of the velvet belly is in the eastern Atlantic, extending from Iceland and Norway to Gabon, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Azores, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verde. It has also been reported off Cape Province, South Africa. This shark mainly inhabits the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes over mud or clay, from close to the bottom to the middle of the water column. It is most common at a depth of 200–500 m (660–1,640 ft), though in the Rockall Trough, it is only found at a depth of 500–750 m (1,640–2,460 ft). This species has been reported from as shallow as 70 m (230 ft), and as deep as 2,490 m (8,170 ft).
Pictures of lanternsharks
– Credit and Resource –
More information: The presence of lateral photophores correlates with increased speciation in deep-sea bioluminescent sharks, DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150219
Scientia — Nearly all life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Oxygen-producing plants and cyanobacteria perfected this process 2.7 billion years ago. But the first photosynthetic organisms were likely single-celled purple bacteria that began absorbing near-infrared light and converting it to sulfur or sulfates about 3.4 billion years ago.
University of Illinois researchers used the Titan supercomputer at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility to create a model of a complete 100-million-atom photosynthetic chromatophore. The final chromatophore model contained about 16,000 lipids and 101 proteins, including the five major types of proteins that contribute to the clockwork of processes that result in the conversion of light energy to ATP. Credit: Abhi Singharoy and Melih Sener, UIUC
Found in the bottom of lakes and ponds today, purple bacteria possess simpler photosynthetic organelles—specialized cellular subunits called chromatophores—than plants and algae. For that reason, Klaus Schulten of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (UIUC) targeted the chromatophore to study photosynthesis at the atomic level.
As a computational biophysicist, Schulten unites biologists’ experimental data with the physical laws that govern the behavior of matter. This combination allows him to simulate biomolecules, atom by atom, using supercomputers. The simulations reveal interactions between molecules that are impossible to observe in the laboratory, providing plausible explanations for how molecules carry out biological functions in nature.
In 2014, a team led by Schulten used the Titan supercomputer, located at the US Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Oak Ridge National Laboratory, to construct and simulate a single chromatophore. The soccer ball-shaped chromatophore contained more than 100 million atoms—a significantly larger biomolecular system than any previously modeled. The project’s scale required Titan, the flagship supercomputer at the Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF), a DOE Office of Science User Facility, to calculate the interaction of millions of atoms in a feasible time frame that would allow for data analysis.
“For years, scientists have seen that cells are made of these machines, but they could only look at part of the machine. It’s like looking at a car engine and saying, ‘Oh, there’s an interesting cable, an interesting screw, an interesting cylinder.’ You look at the parts and describe them with love and care, but you don’t understand how the engine actually works that way,” Schulten said. “Titan gave us the fantastic level of computing we needed to see the whole picture. For the first time, we could go from looking at the cable, the screw, the cylinder to looking at the whole engine.”
Schulten’s chromatophore simulation is being used to understand the fundamental process of photosynthesis, basic research that could one day lead to better solar energy technology. Of particular interest: how hundreds of proteins work together to capture light energy at an estimated 90 percent efficiency.
Furthermore, the chromatophore project marks a shift in computational biophysics from analyzing the individual cell parts (e.g., a single protein) to analyzing the specialized systems of the cell (e.g., hundreds of proteins working together to carry out an autonomous function). This is a significant step toward the long-term goal of simulating an entire living organism.
Reconstructing Photosynthesis
When the purple bacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides switches into photosynthetic mode, its inner membrane begins to change, bulging out into small, round vesicles that house the light-harvesting machinery.
Five major types of proteins arranged within two layers of lipids, or fats, contribute to the clockwork of processes that result in the conversion of light energy to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the common fuel for cellular function across all branches of life.
During the initial steps of photosynthesis, two types of light-harvesting proteins absorb wavelengths of light that lift them into an excited state. This electronic excitation travels through the light-harvesting network to the third type of protein, known as the reaction center. Here, electrical energy is converted into an initial form of chemical energy. Molecules called quinols carry this chemical energy across the organelle to the fourth type of protein—the bc1 complex—where a charge separation process strips the quinol of electrons. This process triggers a current of protons in the fifth type of protein, known as ATP synthase, driving the molecule’s paddle wheel-like c-ring to produce ATP. A detailed video of this process narrated by Schulten can be seen below:
Schulten’s team solved the 100-million-atom model under an allocation on Titan, awarded through the Innovative and Novel Computational Impact on Theory and Experiment, or INCITE, program.
The team used experimental data gathered from atomic force microscopy and the molecular dynamics code NAMD to build and calculate the forces exerted by the spherical chromatophore’s millions of atoms. The final chromatophore model measured 70 nanometers across and contained about 16,000 lipids and 101 proteins. To ensure the simulation mirrored nature, the chromatophore was submerged in a virtual 100 nanometer cube of water—equal to the largest particle size that can fit through a surgical mask—at room temperature and pressure.
Titan, a Cray XK7 with a peak performance of 27 petaflops (or 27 quadrillion calculations per second), proved pivotal in the early stages of the project. By offloading computationally demanding calculations to Titan’s GPUs, the team was able to achieve two to three times the performance of a CPU-only simulation. Additionally, NAMD scaled efficiently to more than 8,000 of Titan’s 18,688 nodes. The combination of robust hardware and effective software allowed the team to resolve its model in a few months, a task that would have taken more than a year on a smaller machine.
“Titan helped us immensely because you need to run the simulation for a certain amount of time and on a large number of processors in order to improve the model,” said team member Abhi Singharoy, a postdoctoral fellow at the Beckman Institute at UIUC. “This project would have been impossible to do on another computer. Had we not achieved a stable model within the first few months, all our other aims would have been out of reach.”
Researchers earlier had leveraged Titan to resolve a flat, 20-million atom chromatophore patch as a stepping stone to the larger system. UIUC postdoctoral researchers Melih Sener and Danielle Chandler carried out the bulk of this initial work, arranging the proteins in accordance with atomic force microscopy data. A description of the 20-million-atom system was published in the August 2014 edition of Biophysical Journal.
Maximizing the Machine
With a stable model, the remarkable processes of the complete chromatophore—how its atoms move and coordinate within an active, energy-conversion system—can be studied in unprecedented detail.
Under a 150-million processor-hour allocation awarded through the 2015 INCITE program, the team is continuing to run its simulation and analyze the chromatophore for notable properties, such as the organelle’s optimum pH and salt concentration levels. Analysis and visualization of the organelle are being conducted using an application called VMD. Both VMD and NAMD originated with and continue to be developed by Schulten’s Theoretical and Computational Biophysics Group at UIUC. The applications support a global community of users.
NAMD calculates the motion of the chromatophore’s atoms in time steps of 2 femtoseconds, or 2,000 trillionths of a second. At this timescale, a 1-day, 4,000-processor run on Titan nets 16 nanoseconds (16 million femtoseconds), or 16 billionths of a second, of simulation time. By continuing to run the simulation—with the goal of capturing a microsecond (1,000 nanoseconds) of simulation time—slower-moving processes of the biomolecular system can be observed.
“With the time we’ve been allotted on Titan, we will actually be able to see a quinol move and the charge being transferred,” Singharoy said.
The OLCF is helping Schulten’s team manage and analyze the terabytes of data produced by the project. Typically, simulation data are transferred to a project’s home institution for analysis. Because of the size of the chromatophore, a transfer job can take days to complete—even using world-class networking resources.
To overcome this bottleneck, the OLCF worked to enable the graphics capabilities of Titan’s GPUs. Opening up Titan for hardware-accelerated graphics makes it possible for users to run VMD’s graphical interfaces in parallel with NAMD from any location, creating a near real-time “window” into calculations being performed on Titan. Such remote visualization would make it easier for researchers to view and manipulate their data while eliminating the file transfer. This VMD capability is expected to be available to users soon.
“We’re making the scientists much more productive,” said John Stone, a senior research programmer at UIUC and VMD’s lead developer. “Essentially, it will be like having a petascale computer on your laptop.”
– Credit and Resource –
More information: D. Chandler, J. Strümpfer, M. Sener, S. Scheuring, and K. Schulten. “Light Harvesting by Lamellar Chromatophores in Rhodospirillum photometricum.” Biophysical Journal 106, no. 11 (2014): 2503–2510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2014.04.030.
With its biggest orbit maneuver since 2006, NASA’s Mars Orbiter will prepare this week for the arrival of NASA’s next Mars lander, InSight, next year.
A planned 77-second firing of six intermediate-size thrusters on July 29 will adjust the orbit timing of the veteran spacecraft so it will be in position to receive radio transmissions from InSight as the newcomer descends through the Martian atmosphere and touches down on Sept. 28, 2016. These six rocket engines, which were used for trajectory corrections during the spacecraft’s flight from Earth to Mars, can each produce about 22 newtons, or five pounds, of thrust.
“Without making this orbit change maneuver, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter would be unable to hear from InSight during the landing, but this will put us in the right place at the right time,” said MRO Project Manager Dan Johnston of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter passes above a portion of the planet called Nilosyrtis Mensae in this artist’s concept illustration. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech
The orbiter will record InSight’s transmissions for later playback to Earth as a record of each event during the critical minutes of InSight’s arrival at Mars, just as MRO did for the landings of NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover three years ago, and NASA’s Phoenix Mars lander in 2008.
InSight will examine the deep interior of Mars for clues about the formation and early evolution of all rocky planets, including Earth.
MRO will continue its studies of Mars while preparing for the InSight arrival. MRO collects high-resolution imaging and spectral data, as well as atmospheric and sub-surface profiles. It has returned several times more data about the Red Planet than all other deep-space missions combined. It will also continue providing communication relay support for Mars rovers and making observations for analysis of candidate landing sites for future missions.
After the InSight landing, plans call for MRO to perform a pair of even larger maneuvers in October 2016 and April 2017 — each using the six intermediate-size thrusters longer than three minutes. These will return it to the orbit timing it has used since 2006, crossing the equator at about 3 a.m. and 3 p.m., local solar time, during each near-polar loop around the planet. To observe the InSight arrival, MRO will be in an orbit that crosses the equator at about 2:30 p.m. local solar mean time.
The last time the mission performed a maneuver larger than this week’s was on November 15, 2006. That maneuver fired the intermediate-size thrusters for 76 seconds to establish the original 3 p.m. Local Mean Solar Time (LMST) sun-synchronous condition after a six-month period of using dips into the upper atmosphere to alter the orbit’s shape. The spacecraft has three sets of thrusters. It used its most powerful set — six thrusters, each with 170 newtons, or 39 pounds of force — for about 27 minutes to first enter orbit when it arrived at Mars on March 10, 2006. It uses eight smaller thrusters most frequently, for small adjustments to course or orientation.
Even after the planned 2017 maneuver, the spacecraft’s remaining supply of hydrazine propellant is projected to be more than 413 pounds (about 187 kilograms), equivalent to about 19 years of consumption in normal operations.
New model may explain emergence of self-replication on early Earth
A schematic drawing of template-assisted ligation, shown in this model to give rise to autocatalytic systems. Credit: Maslov and Tkachenko
Scientia — When life on Earth began nearly 4 billion years ago, long before humans, dinosaurs or even the earliest single-celled forms of life roamed, it may have started as a hiccup rather than a roar: small, simple molecular building blocks known as “monomers” coming together into longer “polymer” chains and falling apart in the warm pools of primordial ooze over and over again.
Then, somewhere along the line, these growing polymer chains developed the ability to make copies of themselves. Competition between these molecules would allow the ones most efficient at making copies of themselves to do so faster or with greater abundance, a trait that would be shared by the copies they made. These rapid replicators would fill the soup faster than the other polymers, allowing the information they encoded to be passed on from one generation to another and, eventually, giving rise to what we think of today as life.
Or so the story goes. But with no fossil record to check from those early days, it’s a narrative that still has some chapters missing. One question in particular remains problematic: what enabled the leap from a primordial soup of individual monomers to self-replicating polymer chains?
A new model published this week in The Journal of Chemical Physics, from AIP Publishing, proposes a potential mechanism by which self-replication could have emerged. It posits that template-assisted ligation, the joining of two polymers by using a third, longer one as a template, could have enabled polymers to become self-replicating.
“We tried to fill this gap in understanding between simple physical systems to something that can behave in a life-like manner and transmit information,” said Alexei Tkachenko, a researcher at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Tkachenko carried out the research alongside Sergei Maslov, a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign with joint appointment at Brookhaven.
Origins of Self-Replication
Self-replication is a complicated process—DNA, the basis for life on earth today, requires a coordinated cohort of enzymes and other molecules in order to duplicate itself. Early self-replicating systems were surely more rudimentary, but their existence in the first place is still somewhat baffling.
Tkachenko and Maslov have proposed a new model that shows how the earliest self-replicating molecules could have worked. Their model switches between “day” phases, where individual polymers float freely, and “night” phases, where they join together to form longer chains via template-assisted ligation. The phases are driven by cyclic changes in environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, or salinity, which throw the system out of equilibrium and induce the polymers to either come together or drift apart.
According to their model, during the night cycles, multiple short polymers bond to longer polymer strands, which act as templates. These longer template strands hold the shorter polymers in close enough proximity to each other that they can ligate to form a longer strand—a complementary copy of at least part of the template. Over time, the newly synthesized polymers come to dominate, giving rise to an autocatalytic and self-sustaining system of molecules large enough to potentially encode blueprints for life, the model predicts.
Polymers can also link together without the aid of a template, but the process is somewhat more random—a chain that forms in one generation will not necessarily be carried over into the next. Template-assisted ligation, on the other hand, is a more faithful means of preserving information, as the polymer chains of one generation are used to build the next. Thus, a model based on template-assisted ligation combines the lengthening of polymer chains with their replication, providing a potential mechanism for heritability.
While some previous studies have argued that a mix of the two is necessary for moving a system from monomers to self-replicating polymers, Maslov and Tkachenko’s model demonstrates that it is physically possible for self-replication to emerge with only template-assisted ligation.
“What we have demonstrated for the first time is that even if all you have is template-assisted ligation, you can still bootstrap the system out of primordial soup,” said Maslov.
The idea of template-assisted ligation driving self-replication was originally proposed in the 1980s, but in a qualitative manner. “Now it’s a real model that you can run through a computer,” said Tkachenko. “It’s a solid piece of science to which you can add other features and study memory effects and inheritance.”
Under Tkachenko and Maslov’s model, the move from monomers to polymers is a very sudden one. It’s also hysteretic—that is, it takes a very certain set of conditions to make the initial leap from monomers to self-replicating polymers, but those stringent requirements are not necessary to maintain a system of self-replicating polymers once one has leapt over the first hurdle.
One limitation of the model that the researchers plan to address in future studies is its assumption that all polymer sequences are equally likely to occur. Transmission of information requires heritable variation in sequence frequencies—certain combinations of bases code for particular proteins, which have different functions. The next step, then, is to consider a scenario in which some sequences become more common than others, allowing the system to transmit meaningful information.
Maslov and Tkachenko’s model fits into the currently favored RNA world hypothesis—the belief that life on earth started with autocatalytic RNA molecules that then lead to the more stable but more complex DNA as a mode of inheritance. But because it is so general, it could be used to test any origins of life hypothesis that relies on the emergence of a simple autocatalytic system.
“The model, by design, is very general,” said Maslov. “We’re not trying to address the question of what this primordial soup of monomers is coming from” or the specific molecules involved. Rather, their model shows a physically plausible path from monomer to self-replicating polymer, inching a step closer to understanding the origins of life.
Waiter, there’s an RNA in my Primordial Soup—Tracing the Origins of Life, from Darwin to Today
Nearly every culture on earth has an origins story, a legend explaining its existence. We humans seem to have a deep need for an explanation of how we ended up here, on this small planet spinning through a vast universe. Scientists, too, have long searched for our origins story, trying to discern how, on a molecular scale, the earth shifted from a mess of inorganic molecules to an ordered system of life. The question is impossible to answer for certain—there’s no fossil record, and no eyewitnesses. But that hasn’t stopped scientists from trying.
Over the past 150 years, our shifting understanding of the origins of life has mirrored the emergence and development of the fields of organic chemistry and molecular biology. That is, increased understanding of the role that nucleotides, proteins and genes play in shaping our living world today has also gradually improved our ability to peer into their mysterious past.
When Charles Darwin published his seminal On the Origin of the Species in 1859, he said little about the emergence of life itself, possibly because, at the time, there was no way to test such ideas. His only real remarks on the subject come from a later letter to a friend, in which he suggested a that life emerged out of a “warm little pond” with a rich chemical broth of ions. Nevertheless, Darwin’s influence was far-reaching, and his offhand remark formed the basis of many origins of life scenarios in the following years.
In the early 20th century, the idea was popularized and expanded upon by a Russian biochemist named Alexander Oparin. He proposed that the atmosphere on the early earth was reducing, meaning it had an excess of negative charge. This charge imbalance could catalyze existing a prebiotic soup of organic molecules into the earliest forms of life.
Oparin’s writing eventually inspired Harold Urey, who began to champion Oparin’s proposal. Urey then caught the attention of Stanley Miller, who decided to formally test the idea. Miller took a mixture of what he believed the early earth’s oceans may have contained—a reducing mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water—and activated it with an electric spark. The jolt of electricity, acting like a strike of lightening, transformed nearly half of the carbon in the methane into organic compounds. One of the compounds he produced was glycine, the simplest amino acid.
The groundbreaking Miller-Urey experiment showed that inorganic matter could give rise to organic structures. And while the idea of a reducing atmosphere gradually fell out of favor, replaced by an environment rich in carbon dioxide, Oparin’s basic framework of a primordial soup rich with organic molecules stuck around.
The identification of DNA as the hereditary material common to all life, and the discovery that DNA coded for RNA, which coded for proteins, provided fresh insight into the molecular basis for life. But it also forced origins of life researchers to answer a challenging question: how could this complicated molecular machinery have started? DNA is a complex molecule, requiring a coordinated team of enzymes and proteins to replicate itself. Its spontaneous emergence seemed improbable.
In the 1960s, three scientists—Leslie Orgel, Francis Crick and Carl Woese—independently suggested that RNA might be the missing link. Because RNA can self-replicate, it could have acted as both the genetic material and the catalyst for early life on earth. DNA, more stable but more complex, would have emerged later.
Today, it is widely believed (though by no means universally accepted) that at some point in history, an RNA-based world dominated the earth. But how it got there—and whether there was a simpler system before it—is still up for debate. Many argue that RNA is too complicated to have been the first self-replicating system on earth, and that something simpler preceded it.
Graham Cairns-Smith, for instance, has argued since the 1960s that the earliest gene-like structures were not based on nucleic acids, but on imperfect crystals that emerged from clay. The defects in the crystals, he believed, stored information that could be replicated and passed from one crystal to another. His idea, while intriguing, is not widely accepted today.
Others, taken more seriously, suspect that RNA may have emerged in concert with peptides—an RNA-peptide world, in which the two worked together to build up complexity. Biochemical studies are also providing insight into simpler nucleic acid analogs that could have preceded the familiar bases that make up RNA today. It’s also possible that the earliest self-replicating systems on earth have left no trace of themselves in our current biochemical systems. We may never know, and yet, the challenge of the search seems to be part of its appeal.
Recent research by Tkachenko and Maslov, published July 28, 2015 in The Journal of Chemical Physics, suggests that self-replicating molecules such as RNA may have arisen through a process called template-assisted ligation. That is, under certain environmental conditions, small polymers could be driven to bond to longer complementary polymer template strands, holding the short strands in close enough proximity to each other that they could fuse into longer strands. Through cyclic changes in environmental conditions that induce complementary strands to come together and then fall apart repeatedly, a self-sustaining collection of hybridized, self-replicating polymers able to encode the blueprints for life could emerge.
– Credit and Resource –
More information: The article, “Spontaneous emergence of autocatalytic information-coding polymers,” by Alexei Tkachenko and Sergei Maslov, The Journal of Chemical Physics on July 28, 2015: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jcp/143/2/10.1063/1.4922545
NASA’s New Horizons Spacecraft Nears Historic July 14 Encounter with Pluto – April 14, 2015
Scientia — NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft is three months from returning to humanity the first-ever close up images and scientific observations of distant Pluto and its system of large and small moons.
“Scientific literature is filled with papers on the characteristics of Pluto and its moons from ground based and Earth orbiting space observations, but we’ve never studied Pluto up close and personal,” said John Grunsfeld, astronaut, and associate administrator of the NASA Science Mission Directorate at the agency’s Headquarters in Washington. “In an unprecedented flyby this July, our knowledge of what the Pluto systems is really like will expand exponentially and I have no doubt there will be exciting discoveries.”
This image of Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, was taken by the Ralph color imager aboard New Horizons on April 9, 2015, from a distance of about 71 million miles (115 million kilometers). It is the first color image ever made of the Pluto system by a spacecraft on approach. Credits: NASA
The fastest spacecraft ever launched, New Horizons has traveled a longer time and farther away – more than nine years and three billion miles – than any space mission in history to reach its primary target. Its flyby of Pluto and its system of at least five moons on July 14 will complete the initial reconnaissance of the classical solar system. This mission also opens the door to an entirely new “third” zone of mysterious small planets and planetary building blocks in the Kuiper Belt, a large area with numerous objects beyond Neptune’s orbit.
The flyby caps a five-decade-long era of reconnaissance that began with Venus and Mars in the early 1960s, and continued through first looks at Mercury, Jupiter and Saturn in the 1970s and Uranus and Neptune in the 1980s.
Reaching this third zone of our solar system – beyond the inner, rocky planets and outer gas giants – has been a space science priority for years. In the early 2000s the National Academy of Sciences ranked the exploration of the Kuiper Belt – and particularly Pluto and its largest moon, Charon – as its top priority planetary mission for the coming decade.
New Horizons – a compact, lightweight, powerfully equipped probe packing the most advanced suite of cameras and spectrometers ever sent on a first reconnaissance mission – is NASA’s answer to that call.
“This is pure exploration; we’re going to turn points of light into a planet and a system of moons before your eyes!” said Alan Stern, New Horizons principal investigator from Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) in Boulder, Colorado. “New Horizons is flying to Pluto – the biggest, brightest and most complex of the dwarf planets in the Kuiper Belt. This 21st century encounter is going to be an exploration bonanza unparalleled in anticipation since the storied missions of Voyager in the 1980s.”
Pluto, the largest known body in the Kuiper Belt, offers a nitrogen atmosphere, complex seasons, distinct surface markings, an ice-rock interior that may harbor an ocean, and at least five moons. Among these moons, the largest – Charon – may itself sport an atmosphere or an interior ocean, and possibly even evidence of recent surface activity.
“There’s no doubt, Charon is a rising star in terms of scientific interest, and we can’t wait to reveal it in detail in July,” said Leslie Young, deputy project scientist at SwRI.
Pluto’s smaller moons also are likely to present scientific opportunities. When New Horizons was started in 2001, it was a mission to just Pluto and Charon, before the four smaller moons were discovered.
The spacecraft’s suite of seven science instruments – which includes cameras, spectrometers, and plasma and dust detectors – will map the geology of Pluto and Charon and map their surface compositions and temperatures; examine Pluto’s atmosphere, and search for an atmosphere around Charon; study Pluto’s smaller satellites; and look for rings and additional satellites around Pluto.
Currently, even with New Horizons closer to Pluto than the Earth is to the Sun, the Pluto system resembles little more than bright dots in the distance. But teams operating the spacecraft are using these views to refine their knowledge of Pluto’s location, and skillfully navigate New Horizons toward a precise target point 7,750 miles (12,500 kilometers) from Pluto’s surface. That targeting is critical, since the computer commands that will orient the spacecraft and point its science instruments are based on knowing the exact time and location that New Horizons passes Pluto.
“Our team has worked hard to get to this point, and we know we have just one shot to make this work,” said Alice Bowman, New Horizons mission operations manager at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in Laurel, Maryland, which built and operates the spacecraft. “We’ve plotted out each step of the Pluto encounter, practiced it over and over, and we’re excited the ‘real deal’ is finally here.”
The spacecraft’s work doesn’t end with the July flyby. Because it gets one shot at its target, New Horizons is designed to gather as much data as it can, as quickly as it can, taking about 100 times as much data on close approach as it can send home before flying away. And although the spacecraft will send select, high-priority datasets home in the days just before and after close approach, the mission will continue returning the data stored in onboard memory for a full 16 months.
“New Horizons is one of the great explorations of our time,” said New Horizons Project Scientist Hal Weaver at APL. “There’s so much we don’t know, not just about Pluto, but other worlds like it. We’re not rewriting textbooks with this historic mission – we’ll be writing them from scratch.”
NASA’s New Horizons: Increasing Variety on Pluto’s Close Approach Hemisphere, and a ‘Dark Pole’ on Charon – June 22, 2015
NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft doesn’t pass Pluto until July 14 – but the mission team is making new discoveries as the piano-sized probe bears down on the Pluto system.
In a long series of images obtained by New Horizons’ telescopic Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) May 29-June 19, Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, appear to more than double in size. From this rapidly improving imagery, scientists on the New Horizons team have found that the “close approach hemisphere” on Pluto that New Horizons will fly over has the greatest variety of terrain types seen on the planet so far. They have also discovered that Charon has a “dark pole” – a mysterious dark region that forms a kind of anti-polar cap.
“This system is just amazing,” said Alan Stern, New Horizons Principal Investigator, from the Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado. “The science team is just ecstatic with what we see on Pluto’s close approach hemisphere: Every terrain type we see on the planet—including both the brightest and darkest surface areas —are represented there, it’s a wonderland!
“And about Charon—wow—I don’t think anyone expected Charon to reveal a mystery like dark terrains at its pole,” he continued. “Who ordered that?”
These images, taken by New Horizons’ Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), show numerous large-scale features on Pluto’s surface. When various large, dark and bright regions appear near limbs, they give Pluto a distinct, but false, non-spherical appearance. Pluto is known to be almost perfectly spherical from previous data. These images are displayed at four times the native LORRI image size, and have been processed using a method called deconvolution, which sharpens the original images to enhance features on Pluto. Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
New Horizons scientists use a technique called deconvolution to sharpen the raw, unprocessed pictures that the spacecraft beams back to Earth; the contrast in these latest images has also been stretched to bring out additional details. Deconvolution can occasionally produce artifacts, so the team will be carefully reviewing newer images taken from closer range to determine whether some of the tantalizing details seen in these images persist. Pluto’s non-spherical appearance in these images is not real; it results from a combination of the image-processing technique and Pluto’s large variations in surface brightness.
“The unambiguous detection of bright and dark terrain units on both Pluto and Charon indicates a wide range of diverse landscapes across the pair,” said science team co-investigator and imaging lead Jeff Moore, of NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, California. “For example, the bright fringe we see on Pluto may represent frost deposited from an evaporating polar cap, which is now in summer sun.”
These recent images show the discovery of significant surface details on Pluto’s largest moon, Charon. They were taken by the New Horizons Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on June 18, 2015. The image on the left is the original image, displayed at four times the native LORRI image size. After applying a technique that sharpens an image called deconvolution, details become visible on Charon, including a distinct dark pole. Deconvolution can occasionally introduce “false” details, so the finest details in these pictures will need to be confirmed by images taken from closer range in the next few weeks. Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
New Horizons is approximately 2.9 billion miles (4.7 billion kilometers) from Earth and just 16 million miles (25 million kilometers) from Pluto. The spacecraft and payload are in good health and operating normally.
One Million Miles to Go; Pluto is More Intriguing than Ever – July 13, 2015
Pluto as seen from New Horizons on July 11, 2015. Credits: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
On July 11, 2015, New Horizons captured a world that is growing more fascinating by the day. For the first time on Pluto, this view reveals linear features that may be cliffs, as well as a circular feature that could be an impact crater. Rotating into view is the bright heart-shaped feature that will be seen in more detail during New Horizons’ closest approach on July 14. The annotated version includes a diagram indicating Pluto’s north pole, equator, and central meridian. Credits: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
As NASA’s unmanned New Horizons spacecraft speeds closer to a historic July 14 Pluto flyby, it’s continuing to multi-task, producing images of an icy world that’s growing more fascinating and complex every day.
On July 11, 2015, New Horizons captured this image, which suggests some new features that are of keen interest to the Geology, Geophysics and Imaging (GGI) team now assembled at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab in Laurel, Maryland. For the first time on Pluto, this view reveals linear features that may be cliffs, as well as a circular feature that could be an impact crater. Just starting to rotate into view on the left side of the image is the bright heart-shaped feature that will be seen in more detail during New Horizons’ closest approach.
The New Horizons spacecraft is now approaching a milestone – only one million miles to Pluto – which will occur at 11:23 p.m. EDT tonight, Sunday, July 12. It’s approaching Pluto after a more than nine-year, three-billion mile journey. At 7:49 AM EDT on Tuesday, July 14 the unmanned spacecraft will zip past Pluto at 30,800 miles per hour (49,600 kilometers per hour), with a suite of seven science instruments busily gathering data. The mission will complete the initial reconnaissance of the solar system with the first-ever look at the icy dwarf planet.
Pluto is Dominated by the Feature Informally Named the “Heart” – July 14, 2015
Pluto nearly fills the frame in this image from the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft, taken on July 13, 2015 when the spacecraft was 476,000 miles (768,000 kilometers) from the surface. This is the last and most detailed image sent to Earth before the spacecraft’s closest approach to Pluto on July 14. The color image has been combined with lower-resolution color information from the Ralph instrument that was acquired earlier on July 13. This view is dominated by the large, bright feature informally named the “heart,” which measures approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) across. The heart borders darker equatorial terrains, and the mottled terrain to its east (right) are complex. However, even at this resolution, much of the heart’s interior appears remarkably featureless—possibly a sign of ongoing geologic processes. Image Credit: NASA/APL/SwRI
The Icy Mountains of Pluto – July 15, 2015
New close-up images of a region near Pluto’s equator reveal a giant surprise: a range of youthful mountains rising as high as 11,000 feet (3,500 meters) above the surface of the icy body.
The mountains likely formed no more than 100 million years ago — mere youngsters relative to the 4.56-billion-year age of the solar system — and may still be in the process of building, says Geology, Geophysics and Imaging (GGI) team leader Jeff Moore of NASA’s Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California.. That suggests the close-up region, which covers less than one percent of Pluto’s surface, may still be geologically active today.
Moore and his colleagues base the youthful age estimate on the lack of craters in this scene. Like the rest of Pluto, this region would presumably have been pummeled by space debris for billions of years and would have once been heavily cratered — unless recent activity had given the region a facelift, erasing those pockmarks.
“This is one of the youngest surfaces we’ve ever seen in the solar system,” says Moore.
Unlike the icy moons of giant planets, Pluto cannot be heated by gravitational interactions with a much larger planetary body. Some other process must be generating the mountainous landscape.
“This may cause us to rethink what powers geological activity on many other icy worlds,” says GGI deputy team leader John Spencer of the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder, Colo.
The mountains are probably composed of Pluto’s water-ice “bedrock.”
Although methane and nitrogen ice covers much of the surface of Pluto, these materials are not strong enough to build the mountains. Instead, a stiffer material, most likely water-ice, created the peaks. “At Pluto’s temperatures, water-ice behaves more like rock,” said deputy GGI lead Bill McKinnon of Washington University, St. Louis.
The close-up image was taken about 1.5 hours before New Horizons closest approach to Pluto, when the craft was 47,800 miles (77,000 kilometers) from the surface of the planet. The image easily resolves structures smaller than a mile across.
New Horizons Captures Two of Pluto’s Smaller Moons – July 21, 2015
Pluto’s moon Nix (left), shown here in enhanced color as imaged by the New Horizons Ralph instrument, has a reddish spot that has attracted the interest of mission scientists. The data were obtained on the morning of July 14, 2015, and received on the ground on July 18. At the time the observations were taken New Horizons was about 102,000 miles (165,000 km) from Nix. The image shows features as small as approximately 2 miles (3 kilometers) across on Nix, which is estimated to be 26 miles (42 kilometers) long and 22 miles (36 kilometers) wide.
Pluto’s small, irregularly shaped moon Hydra (right) is revealed in this black and white image taken from New Horizons’ LORRI instrument on July 14, 2015, from a distance of about 143,000 miles (231,000 kilometers). Features as small as 0.7 miles (1.2 kilometers) are visible on Hydra, which measures 34 miles (55 kilometers) in length.
While Pluto’s largest moon Charon has grabbed most of the lunar spotlight so far, these two smaller and lesser-known satellites are now getting some attention. Nix and Hydra – the second and third moons to be discovered – are approximately the same size, but their similarity ends there.
New Horizons’ first color image of Pluto’s moon Nix, in which colors have been enhanced, reveals an intriguing region on the jelly bean-shaped satellite, which is estimated to be 26 miles (42 kilometers) long and 22 miles (36 kilometers) wide.
Although the overall surface color of Nix is neutral grey in the image, the newfound region has a distinct red tint. Hints of a bull’s-eye pattern lead scientists to speculate that the reddish region is a crater. “Additional compositional data has already been taken of Nix, but is not yet downlinked. It will tell us why this region is redder than its surroundings,” said mission scientist Carly Howett, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado. She added, “This observation is so tantalizing, I’m finding it hard to be patient for more Nix data to be downlinked.”
Meanwhile, the sharpest image yet received from New Horizons of Pluto’s satellite Hydra shows that its irregular shape resembles the state of Michigan. The new image was made by the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on July 14, 2015 from a distance of 143,000 miles (231,000 kilometers), and shows features as small as 0.7 miles (1.2 kilometers) across. There appear to be at least two large craters, one of which is mostly in shadow. The upper portion looks darker than the rest of Hydra, suggesting a possible difference in surface composition. From this image, mission scientists have estimated that Hydra is 34 miles (55 kilometers) long and 25 miles (40 kilometers) wide. Commented mission science collaborator Ted Stryk of Roane State Community College in Tennessee, “Before last week, Hydra was just a faint point of light, so it’s a surreal experience to see it become an actual place, as we see its shape and spot recognizable features on its surface for the first time.”
Images of Pluto’s most recently discovered moons, Styx and Kerberos, are expected to be transmitted to Earth no later than mid-October.
Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005 using Hubble Space Telescope data by a research team led by New Horizons project scientist Hal Weaver, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Maryland. New Horizons’ findings on the surface characteristics and other properties of Nix and Hydra will help scientists understand the origins and subsequent history of Pluto and its moons.
NASA’s New Horizons Finds Second Mountain Range in Pluto’s ‘Heart’ – July 21, 2015
A newly discovered mountain range lies near the southwestern margin of Pluto’s Tombaugh Regio (Tombaugh Region), situated between bright, icy plains and dark, heavily-cratered terrain. This image was acquired by New Horizons’ Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on July 14, 2015 from a distance of 48,000 miles (77,000 kilometers) and sent back to Earth on July 20. Features as small as a half-mile (1 kilometer) across are visible.
Pluto’s icy mountains have company. NASA’s New Horizons mission has discovered a new, apparently less lofty mountain range on the lower-left edge of Pluto’s best known feature, the bright, heart-shaped region named Tombaugh Regio (Tombaugh Region).
These newly-discovered frozen peaks are estimated to be one-half mile to one mile (1-1.5 kilometers) high, about the same height as the United States’ Appalachian Mountains. The Norgay Montes (Norgay Mountains) discovered by New Horizons on July 15 more closely approximate the height of the taller Rocky Mountains.
The new range is just west of the region within Pluto’s heart called Sputnik Planum (Sputnik Plain). The peaks lie some 68 miles (110 kilometers) northwest of Norgay Montes.
This newest image further illustrates the remarkably well-defined topography along the western edge of Tombaugh Regio.
“There is a pronounced difference in texture between the younger, frozen plains to the east and the dark, heavily-cratered terrain to the west,” said Jeff Moore, leader of the New Horizons Geology, Geophysics and Imaging Team (GGI) at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California. “There’s a complex interaction going on between the bright and the dark materials that we’re still trying to understand.”
While Sputnik Planum is believed to be relatively young in geological terms – perhaps less than 100 million years old – the darker region probably dates back billions of years. Moore notes that the bright, sediment-like material appears to be filling in old craters (for example, the bright circular feature to the lower left of center).
This image was acquired by the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on July 14 from a distance of 48,000 miles (77,000 kilometers) and sent back to Earth on July 20. Features as small as a half-mile (1 kilometer) across are visible. The names of features on Pluto have all been given on an informal basis by the New Horizons team.
Pluto Dazzles in False Color – July 23, 2015
Videos of the Journey to Pluto from NASA
Views of Pluto From New Horizons’ Approach
Mountains on Pluto
Animated Flyover of Pluto’s Icy Mountain and Plains
Journey to Pluto Galary
– Credit and Resource –
A massive thank you to NASA for this awesome adventure. The people of planet Earth salute you
